Human Population Size And Climate Change Environmental Sciences Essay

Human Population Size And Climate Change Environmental Sciences Essay Over the years, human society has changed the local ecological system and caused the change of regional climate. Today, mankind has begun to affect the entire planets climate. The worlds population in the next 12 to 13 years will increase more than 1 billion. It is predicted that by 2020, the population will increase to 76 billion from the current 6.5 billion, in 2030 to 8.2 billion, in 2050 to staggering 9.0 billion. There is a huge gap between population growth and food supply growth. When the population growth exceeds the capacity of the food supply, famine is inevitable. The more people mean needing more air, water, and more housing, education and employment opportunities. To meet these, people will ignore the prevention and treatment of the serious consequences of climate change. But climate change has caused global warming and rising sea levels, which could lead to the destruction of the Earths civilization without any measures. Humanity in the process of production and consump tion make destruction, pollution and impact on the environment, but changed environment also affects the survival of mankind. The relationship between population and the environment has been objective relationship since the origins of mankind. The population development is a special kind of social process, which is mainly determined by economic and social conditions. During a social process, population and environment have the opposite and unity relation of interrelatedness, interaction, and mutual restraint. This essay will first discuss the development of population size and the problem. Following this, it will describe the impact of population on the climate. Finally it will describe impact of climate on the population. Development of population size and the problem Overall, the worlds population growth is relatively fast. The second half of the 20th century, the world had an unprecedented rapid population growth. Not only the population growth rate reached a historic peak level and increment of the population exceeded the total accumulation population in more than 200 million years of human history. U.S. Census Bureau data showed that the worlds population in 1930 reached 20 billion, in 1974 to 40 million, in 1987 to 50 million, in 1999 to reach 6.0 billion. The population growth rate has been accelerating in the 20th century. The worlds population had doubled in 1850-1950 years, while in 1950-1990 a short period of four decades had doubled. At present, in the world about 365,000 people born every day, of which 57% born in Asia, 26% in Africa, 9% in Latin America, 5% in Europe, but was born in North America and only 3%. In addition, less than 1% of the population is born in Oceania and the oceanic islands. After subtracting the number of deaths , the global average daily increase is nearly 21 million people. The Earth increases by nearly 80 million people each year, almost equivalent to a large population country. India is one of the worlds youngest population countries, more than half of the national smaller than 25 years of age, 1/3 of the population smaller than 15 years(Ehrlich, 1997).. World Population Prospects published by United Nations predicts that by 2050, Indias population will increase to 1.593 billion In this century many scientific observations indicate that concentrations of greenhouse gases in atmospheric are increasing. Prior to 1750, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels remained at 280ppm. After the industrial revolution, as human activities, especially the growing consumption of fossil fuels (coal, oil, etc.), massive destruction of forest vegetation and the growing man-made emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, atmospheric carbon dioxide level gradually increases, per year increasing 1.8ppm (about 0.4%), and it has risen to nearly 360ppm so far. In the past century, global average surface temperature has risen by 0.3 à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ to 0.6 à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, the global sea level rise of 10-25 cm (EPA, 2006). Recent years, countries around the world have emerged the hottest weather over centuries, and the frequent occurrence of El NiÃÆ' ±o phenomenon, which have caused tremendous economic losses. With the reduction in per cap ita grain area, more and more countries bear the risk of loss of food self-sufficiency. The extension of water scarcity is perhaps the most undervalued resource problems in the contemporary world. However, in any areas where the population is still growing, per capita fresh water supply is decreasing. Impact of population on the climate In the human production and life, over-grazing, deforestation makes the soil erosion, land degradation; super-exploitation of resources has led to depletion of a lot of natural resources; a variety of waste emissions cause serious environmental pollution and damage, which cause a series of global environmental issues. Population size, distribution, migration have also a huge impact on regional ecological environment. At present, the environmental changes caused by the rapid population growth and rapid development of urbanization have begun to affect the global biogeochemical cycles and long-term climate change, and become an important eco-driving force for large-scale changes in the environment and population. 1). According to UN information, per capita cultivated land was 0.31 hectares in 1975, and in 2000 it drop to 0.1 hectares due to population growth. In the condition of huge population and the relative decrease in the arable land, raising yield per unit area is a positive way to increase the grain. It relies mainly on chemical fertilizers and pesticides to reach the aim. However, large-scale use of fertilizers and pesticides has brought serious environmental problems such as soil compaction, poor physical and chemical properties, organic matter reduction and the fertility decline. 2). Forest is an important factor to maintain the quality of the environment for human survival. However, population growth is bound to destroy forest for cultivated land, or to build a house. As a result, an increasing number of forest resources are destroyed. Forest area on the planet had reached 76 million hectares, in 1962 reducing to 55 million hectares, in 1975 reducing to 26 million hectares. Accordi ng to the calculation of American scholar, with the population growth, depletion of forests will be extended to the year 2020. Then forest area will stabilize at 1.8 billion hectares, of which about 1.45 billion hectares are in developed countries, only 370 million hectares in developing countries. Because the forests are heavily exploited, topsoil on the earth being that are washed away are 24 billion tons every year, loss of several million tons of fertilizer, having a great bad impact on farmers and livestock production. 3). Rapid growth and high concentration of population have brought tremendous pressure on the environment. Environmental pollution is one of the most serious mankind facing problems, such as: air pollution, water pollution, traffic congestion, noise nuisance, accumulation of garbage and so on. Population growth will increase carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides in the atmosphere due to respiration, combustion and industrial development, which may cau se acid rain and photochemical smog events. More serious is to cause the earths average temperature increase to affect climate due to the greenhouse effect caused by the increase in carbon dioxide, resulting in serious damage to the planets ecosystems (Smith, 2008). Impact of climate on the population Population distribution, migration and the quantity and quality depend on certain region environmental conditions to a considerable extent. Therefore, the relationship between population and the environment have obvious regional characteristics because of the different regional conditions. Integrated resource supply capacity of environment plays an important role in population distribution and migration. Quantity and quality of the population are affected by natural and social environment, the dual constraints. Population is the unity of its quantity characteristics and quality characteristics. Population quantity and population characteristics and physical appearance are all severely constrained by the environment. The demographic impacts of climate change on population are mainly in the following aspects. 1) Population growth makes a pressure on water supply and demand pressure, even without considering the impact of climate change, by 2050 there will also be 5 billion people facing water shortage situation, more than half of the worlds population. Impact of climate change makes the water problem even worse. Rivers dried up and falling water table are regarded as evidence of shortage of water resources, such as the Nile, the Yellow River and the Colorado River, which almost have waterless flowing to sea. At present, the world water tables of major grain-producing areas are falling on every continent. The U.S. southern Great Plains, the North China Plain and in most parts of India, groundwater aquifers are becoming increasingly dried up. International Water Management Institute predicts that in 2050 year in some countries a total of about 1 billion people live will face absolute water scarcity situation. These countries will reduce agricultural water to meet the needs of residents and industrial water demand. China and India are considered the worlds two major agricultural irrigation countries, and will have a significant reduction in irrigation water supply (Leigh, 2007). 2) Extreme weather and sea level rise have the most serious effect on the coastal and low-elevation areas, and coastal areas accounting for 2% of the total land live on 10% of the population around the world. Take Bangladesh and China for example, in 1990 to-2000 years, population growth rate living in coastal areas is twice the national rate of population growth. In the negative effects of sea-level rise and extreme weather, number of living people is growing. Others such as landslides, flash floods and glacial lake overflow and other issues also have impact on the human. It is expected 40% of the worlds population will be affected by the Asian mountain glaciers and snow melting. 3) The agricultural productivity reduces. Tropical and subtropical agriculture are most affected, because the regio ns crop is already under the extreme climate varieties. As the population growth, reduced crop output and increasingly higher food prices, to 2080, will cause 90000000-125000000 population in developing countries facing the problem of hunger. 4) The global climate change often leads to severe changes of regional climate and weather, which have wide-ranging implications on human health. Global climate warming causes more heat in summer and temperate in winter, which is accompanied by an increase in frequency and intensity of heat waves. Humidity increase aggravates the effect of extreme heat in summer on human health. In temperate regions, high temperature increases the number of deaths during the day to day. For example, the United States during the heat wave in Chicago in 1995, the death was over 500, of which the highest mortality is at older ages. The future, as increase in frequency and intensity of heat waves, deaths number and serious illnesses caused by extreme high temperatu re events will increase. Also, because of air pollution, during the heat wave in 1995, the United States, it was estimated that more than half the number of deaths was caused by increased air pollution (Jonathan A. Patz, 2005). Flood causes casualties and infectious diseases to increase (P. Martens, 1999). Drought affects food production, and exacerbates the existing situation of malnutrition, inducing famine to affect human health. During the drought and water shortages, the water only is used for cooking but not for health, so that it increases the risk of disease and epidemic disease outbreaks. Conclusion Sir Nicholas Stern in 2006, in Stern Report pointed out that climate change could trigger the worst ever and the most extensive market failure. He warned that the world must invest one per cent of gross domestic product to slow the effects of climate change, the cost of failure to do so is the economic downturn of up to 20 percent of being the worlds gross domestic product. Climate change is a serious challenge to the whole world, and has an extensive impact on human well-being and safety. According to IPCC estimation, by 2050, due to coastal flooding, shoreline erosion and agricultural pollution and other reasons, there will be 150 million refugees. Investment in family planning and reproductive health, girl education, women empowerment and economic opportunities and youth development can accelerate demographic transition in the least developed countries and developing countries, so that they can seize the demographic dividend, to achieve economic growth, while to enhance the abilit y to address climate change. In strategies of adaptation to climate change, demographic factors should not continue to be ignored. It is necessary to take effective measures to meet the worlds most vulnerable populations, including womens needs. Universal population policy of voluntary contraception, comprehensive consideration of population dynamics and development of poverty reduction will ultimately achieve sustainable population development adapting to climate change.

Abortion - Morally Wrong for 3000 Years! :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Judaeo-Christian tradition has always condemned abortion as a grave evil. The law of Moses ordered strict penalties for causing an abortion. We read, "If men who are fighting hit a pregnant woman and she gives birth prematurely [Hebrew: "so that her child comes out"], but there is no serious injury, the offender must be fined whatever the woman's husband demands and the court allows. But if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot" (Ex. 21:22-24). This applies the lex talionis or "law of retribution" to abortion. The lex talionis establishes the just punishment for an injury (eye for eye, tooth for tooth, life for life, compared to the much greater retributions that had been common before, such as life for eye, life for tooth, lives of the offender's family for one life). The lex talionis would already have been applied to a woman who was injured in a fight. The distinguishing point in this pas sage is that a pregnant woman is hurt "so that her child comes out"; the child is the focus of the lex talionis in this passage. Aborted babies must have justice, too. This is because they, like older children, have souls, even though marred by original sin. David tells us, "Surely I was sinful at birth, sinful from the time my mother conceived me" (Ps. 51:5). Since sinfulness is a spiritual rather than a physical condition, David must have had a spiritual nature from the time of conception. The same is shown in James 2:26, which tells us that "the body without the spirit is dead": The soul is the life-principle of the human body. Since from the time of conception the child's body is alive (as shown by the fact it is growing), the child's body must already have its spirit.    The approximately 5,000 historic documents of the Early Church Fathers makes numerous references to abortion as a grave sin. The Didache, perhaps the first Christian catechism from 70-90AD, records the following in chapter 2, verses 1-2: "The second commandment of the teaching: You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not seduce boys. You shall not commit fornication. You shall not steal. You shall not practice magic. You shall not use potions. You shall not procure [an] abortion, nor destroy a newborn child.

Black Thunder :: Black Thunder Essays

Black Thunder In the year 1800 Thomas Jefferson was campaigning very hard against John Adams for the presidency of the United States. Across the Atlantic, in France, Napoleon Bonaparte had consolidated his leadership of France. Meanwhile, in Santo Domingo (later Haiti), Toussaint L'Ouverture, with the succor of his countrymen and tropical diseases, repelled 20,000 French troops and formed a new black republic. The exploits of Toussaint did not go unobserved by slaves in the United States, especially in Virginia's Henrico County. In Black Thunder, Gabriel's Revolt: Virginia: 1800, author Arna Bontemps tells us what legacy the age of revolution brought to the slaves of Richmond. The chief character and leader of the slaves is Gabriel, the youngest of three brothers. although he is the biggest and strongest of the three. Gabriel and his brothers, Martin and Soloman, are the property of plantation owner Thomas Prosser. Gabriel's ascendancy to the leadership role of the slaves is secured when he bests Ditcher, a huge slave, who defeated Soloman and Martin in previous combats. Gabriel's' awakening and enlightenment to freedom starts and grows from his many trips into Richmond as Mr. Prosser's carriage driver. In Richmond, Gabriel makes it his duty to eavesdrop on the conversation of M. Cruezot and Alexander Biddenhurst, Frenchmen whose discourses are often laced with phrases of equality and liberty. These Frenchmen are referred to as Jacobins by the whites. Moreover, Gabriel and others are regularly listening to a freed slave, Mingo's reading of the Bible; they find passages about the Children of Israel's deliverance from Egypt and David's slaying of Goliath interesting. The slaves consider themselves another Children of Israel in another time. With a natural yearning to be free, and the enlightenment to reinforce and fuel his urge, Gabriel starts to lay a plan to smash the shackles that bind him. Everything is in place, the revolt is poised to be executed, but the unexpected and most unwelcome thing happens -- a thunderstorm. The streams become inundated, the roads turn into rivers of mud, and Gabriel's legions are bogged down, unable to rendezvous with him. The torrential rain breeds superstition and it in turn breeds desertion. Some of the slaves say the stars are against them, and others question the rightness of their mission. A dwindling force is not one that insures victory, so Gabriel postpones the revolt to await more favourable weather. During this time, Pharaoh and Ben, two slaves who are assigned the task of rallying support from the slaves of Carolina County, are having second thoughts about going through with the plan.

Argument Against the Death Penalty Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive C

Argument Against the Death Penalty Life is sacred. This is an ideal that the majority of people can agree upon to a certain extent. For this reason taking the life of another has always been considered the most deplorable of crimes, one worthy of the harshest available punishment. Thus arises one of the great moral dilemmas of our time. Should taking the life of one who has taken the life of others be considered an available punishment? Is a murderer's life any less sacred than the victim's is? Can capital punishment, the death penalty, execution, legal murder, or whatever a society wishes to call it, be morally justifiable? The underlying question in this issue is if any kind of killing, regardless of reason, can be accepted. In this paper I will discuss if the modern American form of capital punishment can be morally justified. Opponents of the death penalty have a distinct advantage when arguing their point over advocates. Their advantage is the fact that taking the life of another is immoral, and if you remove all outstanding circumstances capital punishment is nothing more than legalized murder. This argument alone is not strong enough, though, because of the many circumstances surrounding capital punishment, such as the fact that the convict being executed has more than likely taken someone else's life. The first justification for the claim that capital punishment is immoral is the idea that it creates a climate of violence. If a society punishes a murderer by murdering them what are we saying about violence? Our society teaches its children that violence does not solve anything, and yet our highest form of punishment is no different than the crime it punishes. Capital punishment also furthers the desensitiz... ... Press Inc, 1986. The Washington Research Project. The Case Against Capital Punishment. 1971. Sowell, Thomas and DiIulio, John J. Jr. "The Death Penalty is a Deterrent." The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. 1986. King, Glen D. "On Behalf of the Death Penalty." The Death Penalty in America. 1982. Prejean, Helen. "The Death Penalty is Morally Unjust." The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. 1986. Amsterdam, Anthony G. "Capital Punishment." The Death Penalty in America. 1982. DiSpoldo, Nick. "The Death Penalty is Applied Unfairly to the Poor." The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. 1986. Ross, Michael. "The Death Penalty is Applied Unfairly to Blacks." The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. 1986. Rothman, Stanley and Powers, Steven. "The Death Penalty is Not Applied Unfairly to Blacks." The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. 1986.

Parallels similarities between the experiences of womenmen in Gileadean and US society Essay

I would like to concur with Atwood that the Gilead society only exist in the land of Gilead alone, and such attributes are not witnessed in the basic American societies even though this concurrence is limited. I will begin by citing Atwood opinion. Firstly, the Gilead society transferred women wealth to their husbands or relatives. Thus, a woman was seen as a property and could not be allowed to own property since she was a property. This is not the case with contemporary US society where women can make significant macroeconomic decisions American women are leaders of large businesses, control large investments and even assume elective posts. I will, therefore, compare the identity issue to makes sure that you understand the differences between American societies and Gilead societies. Unlike in the American society, in the Gileadian society women were highly segregated from one another. For a woman to befriend a fellow woman that relationship was to be made public. As such, their husbands took women as properties. Thus, they expected women to consult them on what choices they would want to make in life. According to Atwood, Gileadian woman would wear uniforms coded to their functions. However, American women have independent decisions. They choose who and who not to relate with. Besides, Audience, Atwood believes that Gilead women were infertile, and they would help their husbands during insemination commonly known as ceremony. The women were only in charge of the household discipline, however, their freedoms since way the feel week they were left to die with no care at all. As well, the women were expected to provide subsequent child catering; as quoted; They would tell Bible stories for children and sing hymns. One of the women was called Serena Joy†¦..was expected to laugh and cry†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦in order to teach the children (16) Rather complex, the women of Gilead, who are seen handling complex administrative jobs, for instance, becoming police officers, are still considered properties of men they are working with. As such, the women become rigid, middle-aged who have internalized patriarchal values. In fact, Gilead women are dogmatized to live in a society that does not seem to care about their objectives. Similarly, women of Gilead operate re-education centers; however, they are not mandated to carry out critical decisions concerning education. However, this is not the case their American counterparts. American counterparts contribute positively towards the development of the society. Their decisions are independent. Similarly, the creation and destruction of property rights fundamentally presents legal challenges affecting the women of Gilead. Men, control the Gilead government. Gilead state captures wayward and loose women who can bear birth to the incoming generations; however, they fail to recognize the power and legitimacy of the new regime. Thus, their property is their self and freedoms and as illustrated earlier, the access to money. As a result, women become the property of their husbands if they have one or the state that has their discretion can dispatch them wherever they see them. In this case, males are in power to claim property rights in women who have been foiled. However, in America, women are not treated as fugitives in fact, they present an equal 50/50 power distribution and resources are shared evenly. Ironically, the Gilead regime pretends to respect the feminist philosophy in its treatment of women and the paints a picture of an utopian future that female society turnaround to become the sorority and prevent from being hurt. However, the patriarchy principles in Gilead embrace the paradox of protection in the imprisonment, where women face significant prejudices in the type of decisions that they make. This is not the case with the present American society. Joining Atwood, I prefer Aunt Lydia reflection on what freedom-to-freedom means. Ironically, the commander justifies the Gilead by claiming that women are relevant if they fulfill their biological duties. Literary the commander had married so many women, and had one ceremonial as Atwood is quoted saying At one, level was an almost a caricature of the banality of kitchen talk that could be a scene from a Pinter commender†¦But in the terror-filled austerity of the commander house, it is seductively comforting†¦.note the word seduction. (10) Such a doctrine is rapid, and it indicates how women are considered as a property of the Gilead men communities. American women consider giving birth as a service to the society and not necessary as a reward for a better life. Besides, American women consider giving birth as a way of giving back to the society positively. Equally, audience please be advised that the fascist Republic of Gilead, which differs the contemporary United States society assigns every woman to different classes of women: without their will to protest. The classes are as a follows: wives, belong to the married men who have a superior military rank. These women, despite their will, are treated fairly better than other counterparts are in the society. Secondly, the Gilead society assigns a second class of women, handmaid, econowives or Martha the role of reproduction and matrimony. These women, despite their will, are engaged into hard jobs serving the rich in one way, or another. The group is forcefully married to a lower rank military regime that does not have enough status to obtain a handmaid or aunts function. Even though ironically, Handmaids surrogate for the infertile heterosexuals, as well as, serving as women housekeepers and cooking nannies. To achieve that, the Gilead initiates a dogmatizing religious program, one tha t ordains the reproduction where multiple doctrines are enacted to affirm the system of social rituals. Members, such as absurd society does not exist in America. On the contrary, in America, women are empowered to make decisions concerning the sexuality. As quoted saying †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦The flesh arranges itself differently. I am a cloud congealed around a central object, the shape of a pear†¦ (Chapter 13, 43) However, the social complexity of the US, American women control their sexuality and as well, control how they would prefer bringing forth their off springs. Similarly, since Gilead is actively involved in patriarch driven conflicts, most members are either infertile or sterile, it is arguable that men through the subsequent political battles have made their property. As such, subsequent political battles have increased toxic wastes and nuclear fallout, where toxic waste colonies are increased. To hide the truth behind such rituals, the Gilead societies have invoked a biblical ritual called â€Å"The Ceremony.† However, arrogantly, how they conduct their sexual activities is unbecoming. The command penetrates the handmaid exposed sex in an attempt to impregnate a woman. The commander is quoted to have said I’m not talking about sex; he says. That was part of it; the sex was too easy. . . You know what they were complaining about the most (Chapter, 32) This is unbecoming since the woman has been lured to sex. Any sound child born by the handmaid is handled over to the wife of the commander as if the child belonged to the commander’s wife. Such a social setting is very wanting and prompts the question on the role of women in the society. To answer that, American women make independent decisions on how when and where, they want to give birth. American women also make the choice to have sex, when, where and with whom. Nonetheless, despite the complex differences between the Gilead society and the American society, we still notice some similarities. While it is evident that the Gilead society obligates women roles as predominantly domestic, the US society seems to emulate that by assigning women the task of raising children while men are technically exempted from that. Additionally, members you will agree with me that the congress, which happens to be active Christian right is looking for traditional family values. Even though we acknowledge that radical pieces of the Gilead system have not found a way into the American system, it is notable that domestic institutions have secret doctrine women in the Gilead society. A common doctrine is the domestic chore, where the common American woman is made to believe that in order to make a perfect partner, one has to wash the dirt, prepare food, and even entertain a commander called the husband. Men experiences, therefore, are not radical, or in any case equal as those affecting women. It is also disheartening to note that efforts by feminine movements are currently being considered outdated or extremists and are not attracting subsequent influence as they were expected two decades. Efforts to benefit and strengthen the woman counterpart peel away the layers the practice once again set to maintain the domin ant-subordinate relationship. Reference Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. London: Vintage Classic, 2010. Print. Source document

Helping Others

Helping others can be very rewarding and beneficial to both parties. After going to the Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting and Our Community Place (OCP), I have realized the benefits of helping others and I have gained new perspectives on others. While I was there I met some very interesting people that might not have the best lives but they know how to make the best of what they have. I felt like I gained some knowledge and insight on different things and it made me feel good to help them out.In my lifetime I feel as though I have overcome many obsticles and accomplished many goals and as I looked around at others that were less fortunate than me I became even more thankful and more willing to help others. It made me feel good to see others happier and to make their day and things a little better. On Sunday night my roommate and I went to the Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting in a building downtown Harrisonburg called the Club with my friend Joseph. The place did not look like a club where you party at but it looked like just a normal building with a lot of cars there.If you drove by you would not know that it was an Alcoholics Anonymous Meeting location. When I first went in I did not expect to see that there were so many normal people in there. This place seems like a place that you have to go to when you are in trouble and have nothing else to do. There was a range of people from my age to elderly people. The people that looked like they had the most trouble were the older people and the younger ones were in there because they might have been more curious of what goes on in the meetings. The open meetings are a place where anyone can go to get help or support others.I went with my friend for support and to gain knowledge about the truth behind alcoholism and to see what it’s like in real life versus the movies and television. It was very different from what I expected. I wasn’t expecting such real problems and people in the situations. I feel like in rea l life people don’t go through all these bad things due to that I see it happen so much in everyday life that everyone lives as actors and goes home to a normal life and not this sad, difficult problem. The largest part of the meeting was support orientated and sharing stories, struggles and success.I got to hear how they got there and what they are doing to stay strong. The stories that were told were confidential and very heart breaking. It made alcohol seem like such a controlling substance that can become deadly if used too much or in large amounts at one time. Alcohol is never seen as being bad or controlling until people start binge drinking and it gets out of hand and we need help. I feel that if college kids would listen to some of the situations and the real struggles of others then they would feel less obligated to get drunk all the time.Some of these people have hit rock bottom and you could see who they really were and the struggles they went through. There were m any different stories on how they got to where they were and what pushed them to go the right way. Some were their kids and families or someone who took the time to help them and show them things could get better. There were a few parents there that wanted more information about how the kids in this generation were abusing alcohol so they knew what to look for in their own children. This type of meeting for the community is very helpful due to that everything is confidential and you can get help for free.I feel like if I could change something about the meeting is making it so that you don’t have to say your name in the beginning because it makes people seem insecure about themselves. Our community Center us a place for those to go who could need help in a variety of ways. Some see it as a church or a counseling center. It is a place to go for enjoyment and help. They provide food and exercising as well as plays, activities or talent shows. The shelter is a place for homeless people in the city and a place for them to pray and seek religious insight.The leader of the OCP is Ron Copland and is a great supporter and motivator for this shelter. He wants everyone to feel closer and equal. He has had many great ideas to make this place a successful shelter and made him a respectable leader and achiever. He is extremely dedicated and spends most of his time and money into this volunteer only facility. He is a very inspirational man and has done so much in his lifetime to help others that time I was there I wanted to help and show my gratitude and respect for all he has done. He is a wonderful man and he has succeeded in life.The OCP is a group that uses caring experiences and working together to help others. Recovering alcoholics and current alcoholics come here to work together and keep busy while trying to get over their problem. They use agriculture and other jobs to show them how to move on and work together. They use a program called OCM which is our com munity works. They learn to work with each other versus doing it all alone. The center does many activities and programs to get everyone involved and help them run these programs and volunteers like my self help keep this wonderful place in the right direction.When I went to the center there was a talent show. Everyone there had a job to do for the show to be put on. They were people from little kids to older adults and they all worked together like they were best friends who know each other forever. OCP is an effective program that is steadily spreading to more individuals. It brings not only people without homes together but those people of the community. It makes us thankful for what we have and realize they are real people. We don’t see homeless people we see every day plain-Jane citizens.We see our community in new light. Each Program had its own approach to the problem at hand. The alcoholics anonymous meeting was depressing and awkward. People were sad and uncomfortabl e and no one sounded like they wanted to be there. The OCP was much more upbeat and happy. I feel that it is a much better way to get over alcoholism. It gives you activities to keep your mind off drinking and keeps you happy. I would rather forget about a drink than talk about it in an awkward group meeting. I think MR.Copland was onto something when he opened the OCP. But just like any idea it may not work for everyone. Both of these situations have shown me another side of the tracks. Both community programs help others and have me a different perspective on alcoholics and their situations. Hearing their stories was very sad and I could not imagine what they go through. Mr. Copland and his hard work made me inspired to work to help others. He has helped so many people and it felt good to show people that they are equal and can get their problems taken care of.

Case Study: Impact of Mining

PFII/2007/WS. 3/7 Original: English UNITED NATIONS NATIONS UNIES DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS Division for Social Policy and Development Co-organizers Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues Government of Khabarovsk Krai and the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON) INTERNATIONAL EXPERT GROUP MEETING ON INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT KHABAROVSK, RUSSIAN FEDERATION AUGUST 27. -29, 2007 Case Study on the Impacts of Mining and Dams on theEnvironment and Indigenous Peoples in Benguet, Cordillera, Philippines Paper by CORDILLERA PEOPLES ALLIANCE I. Background Land and People of Benguet The Cordillera region in Northern Luzon, Philippines, is homeland to more than 1 million indigenous peoples belonging to at least 8 distinct ethnic groups collectively known as Igorots. Two of these ethnic groups, the Ibaloy and the Kankanaey, are found in the province of Benguet, which occupies 265,538 hectares of the Cordillera r egion’s total land area of 1. million hectares. The Ibaloy people live in the southeastern portion, occupying 8 of the province’s 13 towns. The Kankanaey, meanwhile dominate the northeast areas of Benguet. Benguet’s fertile land along the rivers and gold ore in the mountains saw the emergence of distinct villages engaged in various economic activities. Gold mining communities rose in the gold-rich areas in Itogon, while gold-trading villages were established along strategic mountain passes and trails. Rice-growing villages emerged in the river valleys.Swidden farming combined with gold panning in the streams and rivers. Land ownership among the Ibaloy and Kankanaey is traditionally recognized by prior occupation, investment of labor and permanent improvements on the land, specifically irrigation systems and retaining stonewalls of the ricefields. The community shares access rights to the forests, rivers, and creeks, and the fruits of these lands and waters are o pen to those who gathered them. [1] Entry of mining, construction of dams Mining has a long history in the Philippines.Small scale mining has been practiced by Philippine peoples for at least ten centuries, and large scale mining by foreign as well as Filipino firms for about a century. Little is known, though, about mining prior to the coming of the Spanish colonialists in the 16th century. [2] Corporate mining in Benguet started during the Spanish colonial period when Spanish businessmen secured a mining concession from the Igorots in Mancayan and launched the operations of the Sociedad Minero-Metalurgica Cantabro-Filipina de Mancayan in 1856. This mine eventually closed down.When the Americans arrived in the 1900s, they entered into contracts with local families to file legal claims to mineral-bearing land. These claims were later used by American prospectors to create the mining companies that would dominate the mining industry in Benguet. These were Benguet Corporation, Atok Bi g Wedge, Itogon-Suyoc Mines and Lepanto Consolidated. [3] In the 1950s, the Agno River in Benguet was tapped as a source of hydropower. The first dam to be built along the Agno River was the Ambuklao Dam, followed by the Binga Dam.Twelve (12) other run-of-river mini-hydros, all privately operated, were also built in other parts of Benguet. In the 1980s, widespread people’s resistance forced the Marcos government and the World Bank to give up its plans for major dam projects in the region. However, the Ramos government took advantage of the energy crisis in the 1990s and initiated with Japanese funding, the construction of the San Roque Multipurpose Project. The San Roque dam is the third dam to be built along the Agno River, located in the boundary between Benguet and Pangasinan province of Central Luzon. 4] II. Mining Operations, Dams and Impacts on the Indigenous Peoples of Benguet Mines and Dams Present in Benguet The province of Benguet has hosted 14 mining companies sinc e corporate mining started in 1903. Some of these mines have closed down while others have continued. Presently operating in Benguet are two large mines using high technology for large-scale mineral extraction. These are the Lepanto Consolidated Mining Company (operating for 70 years) and the Philex Mining Corporation (operating since 1955).Benguet Corporation, the oldest mining company in the country, abandoned its operations in 1997 after mining for almost a century. The abandoned open pit mine site, underground tunnels, waste dump sites, mill, diversion tunnels and tailings dams in Itogon still remain today. The company now has ongoing contract mining arrangements with small scale miners. Itogon-Suyoc mines closed down in 1997, but is now negotiating with foreign investors to reopen its mines. In addition, new mining explorations and applications are now coming into other parts of Benguet with renewed efforts by the government to invite foreign investments.These applications of v arious kinds, numbering 138, are found in all 13 municipalities of the province covering 147,618. 9 hectares or 55. 7% of the province’s total land area. This figure is aside from the area already covered by past and existing mines. Thus we have a situation where most of the total land area of Benguet is covered by past, ongoing and future mining operations. Accompanying mining operations is the construction of tailings dams needed to contain the mine wastes. These tailings dams were built across the river beds in various parts of Benguet.However, most tailings dams are not leak proof and have not been strong enough to withstand torrential currents during the typhoon season, and the major earthquake that rocked Northern Luzon in 1990. Through the years, tailings dams in Benguet have proved incapable of containing the volume of tailings that came from the mills. Time and again, these tailings have breached their dams. Benguet Corporation constructed 5 tailings dams. Lepanto ha s 5 tailings dams, 2 of which collapsed. Philex has 3 tailings dams, 2 of which collapsed in 1992 and 1994. In 2001, tailings breached another Philex dam.Itogon-Suyoc has 1 tailings dam that collapsed in 1994. Thus we have a situation where burst, broken, weak and leaking tailings dams dot the major river systems of the province – the Abra River, Agno River, Antamok River and Bued River. Another concern is the series of three mega hydroelectric dams built along the Agno River – the Ambuklao, Binga and San Roque dams – that block the river flow to generate electricity. The power generated by these dams has gone to supply the power needs of the mining companies as well as the overall power demand of the Luzon Grid.However, Ambuklao and Binga dams are dying and no longer fully operational, crippled by the voluminous silt that has accumulated in the reservoirs, upstream and beyond. The San Roque dam, which has the generating capacity of 345 megawatts, is now generat ing only 18 megawatts. Impacts of Mines and Dams The combination of mines and dams in Benguet has had devastating impacts on the environment and on the Kankanaey and Ibaloy people in the province. These impacts have not only caused serious environmental destruction and suffering for the affected communities, but have also violated the collective rights of the indigenous peoples.As proven by the experience of the Benguet indigenous peoples, large-scale corporate mining and dams destroy, pollute, disrupt agricultural economies, and displace indigenous peoples. 1. Land destruction, subsidence and water loss Corporate mining in Benguet is done by surface mining as well as underground tunneling and block caving. Also significant are other surface excavations by the mining companies for the installation of facilities, such as portals for deep mining, lumber yards, ore trains, mills, tailings ponds, power houses, mine administration offices, and employee housing. 5] Open pit mining is the most destructive as it requires removing whole mountains and excavation of deep pits. Generally, open pits need to be very big – sometimes more than 2. 5 kilometres long. In order to dig these giant holes, huge amounts of earth need to be moved, forests cleared, drainage systems diverted, and large amounts of dust let loose. According to the Benguet Corporation, â€Å"Any open-pit mining operation, by the very nature of its method, would necessarily strip away the top soil and vegetation of the land. [6] Sure enough, open-pit mining in Itogon by Benguet Corporation has removed whole mountains and entire villages from the land surface. After exhausting the gold ore, the open pit in Itogon is now abandoned as the company has shifted to other economic ventures like water privatization. Not known to many, Philex also practices open pit mining in Camp 3, Tuba, Benguet, presently affecting 98 hectares of land. The affected area is continuously expanding as the open pit mine operat ions of Philex continue. The land damage has displaced homes and communities and caused the people to lose their lands.Meanwhile, underground block-caving operations by Philex and Lepanto have induced surface subsidence and ground collapse. In Mankayan, where Lepanto is operating, the land surface in populated areas is sinking, causing damage to buildings, farms and property. In July 1999, Pablo Gomez, a villager in Mankayan, was killed when he was suddenly swept away in a landslide along with the Colalo Primary School building. 71 million cubic feet of earth gave way beneath him, covering and destroying 14 hectares of farming land. [7]Aside from land subsidence, the water tables have also subsided as deep mining tunnels and drainage tunnels disrupt groundwater paths. Tunneling often leads to a long-term lowering of the water table. In 1937, a disaster hit Gumatdang, Itogon’s oldest rice-producing village. Atok-Big Wedge drove in two gigantic tunnels on opposite sides of the village, immediately draining the water from its most abundant irrigation sources. In 1962, Benguet Corporation drove in another drainage tunnel that stretched between its Kelly mine in Gumatdang and its mines in Antamok.Instead of just draining water from the mines, the tunnel drained the water from a major irrigation source, drying up ricefields. Ventilation shafts have also drawn water away from surface streams, irrigation canals, and pondfields. In addition, the felling of timber to shore up underground tunnels has denuded surrounding watersheds, aggravating water loss. [8] Not only does mining cause water subsidence, it also deprives farming communities of much-needed water. The industry requires large volumes of water for mining, milling and waste disposal.Mining companies have privatized numerous natural water sources in Itogon and Mankayan for the purpose. Now, the people in many mining-affected communities have to buy water for drinking and domestic use from outside sources through water delivery trucks, or by lining up for hours in the few remaining water sources to fill up a gallon of water. 2. Pollution of Water and Soil Open-pit and underground bulk mining by Philex in Tuba and Lepanto in Mankayan generate ore and tailings at a rate of up to 2,500 metric tons per mine per day. 9] Toxic mine tailings are usually impounded in tailings dams. However, when pressure in the tailings dams builds up, especially during times of heavy rainfall, the mining companies drain their tailings dams of water or face the risk of having the dams burst or collapse. In either case, the tailings eventually find their way out, polluting the water and silting up the rivers and adjacent lands. People of Mankayan remember the Abra River before the mine. It was deep and narrow, just 5 meters wide, full of fish and surrounded by verdant rice paddies.Now there is a wide gorge of barren land on either side of the polluted river. Fruit trees and animals have died from the poisone d water and rice crops are stunted. [10] When Lepanto started operations in 1936, the company dumped mine tailings and waste straight into the river. It was only in the 1960’s that the first tailings dam was built. The dam was abandoned after less than 10 years and the land became unsuitable for agriculture. Tailings dam 2 was constructed in the 1970s. Its collapse caused the contamination of nearby ricefields.Tailings Dam 3 and a diversion tunnel gave way in 1986 during a strong typhoon. Another spillway collapsed after a typhoon in 1993. The spilled tailings encroached on riverbanks and destroyed ricefields downstream. They also caused the riverbed to rise and the polluted water to backflow into other tributaries of the Abra River. [11] An Environmental Investigative Mission (EIM) in September 2002 indictaed that heavy metal content (lead, cadmium and copper) was elevated in the soil and waters downstream from the Lepanto mine.Water samples from the Abra River were found to have low level pH (acidic) capable of solubilizing heavy metals. One resident who used gravel taken from the Mankayan River for construction of his house reported that the steel bar reinforcements were corroded after a few months. The same EIM report revealed dissolved oxygen readings at the CIP Mill Outlet and at Tailings Dam 5A to be below 2 mg/L. Aquatic life cannot survive in conditions where dissolved oxygen is below 2 mg/L.Sulfuric acid is also believed to be the cause of the â€Å"rotten eggs† smell that residents report when mine tailings are released into the Mankayan River during heavy rainfall. Another concern is the high amount of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) found at various points of the Mankayan River downstream from Tailings Dam 5A. [12] Abandoned mine sites like Benguet Corporation and Itogon-Suyoc Mines in Itogon have long-term damaging impacts on rivers and their surrounding fields because of the build up of acidic mine wat er.Acid mine drainage comes from both surface and underground mine workings, waste rock, tailings piles and tailings ponds. [13] Pollution of this kind can continue long after a mine is closed or abandoned, and the water that leaches into the ecosystem is frequently acidic, killing rivers and posing health risks to local communities. [14] 3. Siltation Siltation of rivers is a serious problem in Benguet resulting from mining operations and dam construction. The Ambuklao and Binga dams are stark examples of the detrimental impacts of siltation and megadams on rivers.The steadily rising level of silt in the dam reservoirs and along the Agno River upstream of the dams is covering a wider and wider area around the dams and continues to destroy more and more rice fields. In the case of the Ambuklao dam, the communities of Bangao and Balacbac were located far above the predicted water level of the dam and 17 kilometers away from the predicted edge of the reservoir. These two communities ar e now inundated because of the rising water level and accumulation of silt upstream along the Agno River. Government authorities dismiss the increasing siltation as a natural phenomenon.However, the Ibaloy people know that the dams are the real culprit. The farmlands and communities were never affected by silt before the dams were built despite storms and earthquakes. The dams blocked the free flow of water and silt down to the lowlands. Silt deposits built up in the dam reservoir and blocked oncoming silt that receded backwards upstream, swamping and inundating all farmlands and communities within reach. [15] In the case of the Philex, a tailings dam collapsed in 1992, releasing some 80 million tons of tailings and causing heavy siltation in the irrigation system downstream.The company paid Php5 million to the affected farmers. Again, during a typhoon in 2001, another tailings dam of Philex collapsed. Ricefields in San Manuel and Binalonan, Pangasinan, were buried in toxic silt a m eter deep. This time, Philex refused to admit responsibility for the disaster putting the blame on nature. [16] In the case of Lepanto, the downstream impact of tailings disposal is that along a 25-kilometer stretch of the Abra River, some 465 hectares of riceland have been washed out. [17] Further, Lepanto’s claim that Tailings Dam 5A is actually helping to contain siltation is deceiving.The high level of TDS and TSS from the CIP Mill Outlet up to Tailings Dam 5A indicates that the silt originates from company operations and is not due to natural siltation. [18] 4. Serious health problems due to water, soil and air pollution Contamination of water, soil and air contributes to increased toxic build-up in people’s bodies. Asthma and other respiratory problems often affect local communities as well as mine workers. When people’s health deteriorates, their ability to work and earn money is reduced even further. The old and the young are particularly vulnerable. [19 ]In 1985, a copper ore dryer was installed by Lepanto. The copper dryer affected the 3 barangays of Paco, Colalo and Cabiten in Mankayan. Local residents complained of abnormal withering of crops, sickness and death of domestic animals and high incidence of respiratory ailments. The company was forced to close down the dryer in the face of people’s opposition. [20] The most common symptoms felt by residents of Mankayan who have inhaled chemical fumes emanating from the mine are: headache, dizziness, cough, chest pain, nasal and eye irritation. Other symptoms reported are itching of the skin, rashes and diarrhea.Some residents report that wounds take longer to heal when exposed to the water of the Abra River. Because of past adverse reactions, people avoid contact with the river water. They do not allow children to bathe in the river. Nor do they let their animals drink from it. Incidence of cancer is a cause for further study as it is among the top 3 causes of mortality in so me affected communities. [21] Women are primarily responsible for maintaining the health of the family and the community. As such, women have to carry the burden of ill health arising from environmental destruction and pollution due to mining operations.At the height of the open pit mine and mill in Itogon, some pregnant women suffered miscarriage, while others experienced diseases of the skin, respiratory tract and blood when exposed to toxic fumes emanating from the mill. The drying up of natural water sources in another contributory factor in the poor health and sanitation in the community. [22] 5. Loss of Flora, Fauna, Biodiversity, and food insecurity The drainage area of the Abra River is home to about 1689 species of plants belonging to 144 families, including 177 species of orchids in 47 genera. More than half (51. %) of the plants found within the area are classified as endemics with 60. 7% of all the orchids classified as such. Benguet has the highest plant species diversi ty within the river basin area compared to other provinces. The EIM conducted in September 2002 noted gross differences between the waterways located directly below the Lepanto mining operations and tributaries originating from sources elsewhere. When the company started a fishpond in March 2001, all the fingerlings died after only 4 days. Aquatic organisms like udang (shrimp) and igat (eel) are reportedly becoming rare.Residents observed fish disease and deformities, aside from a drop in the fish catch. Fishkills occur every rainy season, attributed to the release of water from the tailings dams by the company. The loss in aquatic life is a major change in the life support system of the communities who rely on the river for daily food. Not only are livelihood sources affected, but so is the general biodiversity damaged, causing breakdowns in the food web. Once-common birds and tree species have disappeared. Among the bird species reported now to be rarely seen are: pagaw, tuklaw an d kannaway.Trees such as the kamantires and burbala were also identified to be no longer in significant quantities. [23] 6. Dislocation of Indigenous People from Ancestral Land and Traditional Livelihoods Large-scale corporate mining and dams have dislocated the indigenous Kankanaey and Ibaloy people from their ancestral lands and traditional livelihoods. Dams have caused the loss of ancestral lands to inundation and siltation. Descendants of families displaced by dams have been reduced to illegal occupants in the dam’s watershed areas or settlers in land owned by others.Mining patents granted by the government to mining companies have denied indigenous communities of their rights to ownership and control over their ancestral lands and resources. In terms of livelihood, mining concessions have taken over lands used by indigenous peoples for their traditional livelihoods – ricefields, vegetable gardens, swiddens, hunting and grazing livestock. Rice fields along riverban ks have been damaged by siltation. Garden cultivators have lost their crops to surface subsidence. Traditional small scale miners have lost their pocket mines and gold panning sites to the big mines and dams.Some communities have lost entire mountainsides, burial sites and hunting grounds to ground collapse and deep open pits. Traditional fishing is no longer possible in polluted rivers, replaced by commercial fishponds in dam reservoirs. An additional impact is the violation of the collective rights of the indigenous Kankanaey and Ibaloy people of their collective rights to self-determination and cultural integrity as they are displaced from the land and community that is the basis of their continued existence and identity.III. People’s Alternatives People’s alternatives to corporate mining and dams and indigenous systems of sustainable resource utilization and management can be found in indigenous communities in the Cordillera. The Ibaloy and Kankanaey people of Beng uet continue to practice traditional small-scale mining till today. Traditional methods of pocket-mining and gold panning are crude but environment-friendly and have been passed down through generations since the 16th century.Small-scale mining is a community affair and access to resources is defined by customary laws, characterized by equitable sharing, cooperation and community solidarity. Men, women, children and the elderly each have a role to play in the extraction and processing of the ore. They extract only enough gold to meet their basic necessities and receive their share of the gold based on an equitable sharing system. However, as communities are deprived of their land and resources, these traditional small-scale mining methods and positive values are now under threat of vanishing.An alternative source of energy are microhydro dams as opposed to megadams. The experience of the micro-hydro project (MHP) of the Chapyusen Mangum-uma Organization (CMO) in the Cordillera prove s the viability of a community-based and community-owned power system to provide energy for lighting, rice milling, sugar pressing, blacksmithing and carpentry. The MHP has built up the people’s capacity to develop their own local resources while ensuring affordable access of poor households to electricity.It also became an opportunity for the people to improve their organization by participating in all phases of project implementation. The observance of ubfo or the traditional system of labor exchange in community mobilization has had a positive outcome by restoring traditional cooperative practices and the free utilization and exchange of individual skills towards a common objective. [24] IV. Recommendations The experience of the Kankanaey and Ibaloy people brings to a fore the need for changes in the development paradigm and policies affecting indigenous peoples.The following recommendations, arising from various reports and fact-finding missions, are forwarded for conside ration by the United Nations, by international financial institutions, mining and dam companies and national governments: 1. The international community should develop minimum standards for the protection of the environment and human rights that are binding on all countries and companies, based on the highest existing standards, and with effective monitoring and sanctions imposed on the offending parties, be it the national government, funding institutions, or the companies. . There exists the Akwe:Kon voluntary guidelines, developed under the Convention of Biological Diversity, for the conduct of cultural, environmental and social impact assessments regarding developments proposed to take place on, or which are likely to impact on sacred sites and on lands and waters traditionally occupied or used by indigenous and local communities.These guidelines should be made binding rather than voluntary and could be adopted as a minimum standard by international financial institutions and na tional governments when implementing development projects affecting indigenous peoples. 3. Countries that are home to transnational companies should enact legislation that will require those companies to operate using the same standards wherever they operate in the world.Home countries whose nationals and corporate entities inflict damage in developing countries, particularly on indigenous peoples, should impose some form of penalty on the offending parties. 4. An international system should be created to allow complaints to be filed by affected indigenous communities against companies, governments and financial institutions whose development programs and interventions violate the rights of ownership and control by indigenous peoples over their ancestral land, territories and resources and cause serious destruction of the environment. . In the case of Benguet where the indigenous people have already suffered and will continue to suffer enormous damage to their lands and environment due to the long-term impacts of mining and dams, proper and immediate compensation and reparation should be provided to all affected people to include adequate monetary compensation, sustainable livelihood, alternative land, employment and other sources of regular income. A program for the restoration and rehabilitation of lands and waters destroyed by mines and dams should also be implemented. . Past experience has shown that no monetary compensation nor livelihood project could replace or surpass the destroyed ancestral land and traditional livelihoods of affected indigenous peoples. The solution to restoring the living quality and to stop the permanent destruction of the environment is to stop destructive large-scale corporate mining and decommission unviable tailings dams and megadams. Alternatives such as chemical-free traditional small scale mining methods and community-based microhydros need to be promoted and supported. . National legislation and policy on the liberalization of mining and the energy industry need to be reviewed and revised as these have proven detrimental to indigenous peoples in different parts of the country. A new mining policy should support the Filipino people’s efforts towards nationalist industrialization and ensure the creation of jobs, food security, a stable economy, mitigation of environmental degradation, and environmental rehabilitation. ———————– [1] Jacqueline K. Carino. Case Study. WCD. 2000 [2] APIT Tako.Mining in Philippine History [3] APIT Tako. Mining in Philippine History [4] Cordillera Peoples Alliance. December 2002. Cordillera Hydropower Projects and the Indigenous Peoples [5] APITTAKO [6] Christian Aid and PIPLinks. Breaking Promises, making profits. Mining in the Philippines. UK. Dec. 2004 [7] CA and PIPLinks [8] APIT TAKO. Mining In Philippine History: Focus On The Cordillera Experience. Paper presented to the United Nations Economic and Social Cou ncil’s Commission on Human Rights during its Transnational Extractive Industries Review.December 2001 and revised March 2002. [9] APIT Tako. [10] CA and PIPLinks. [11] Save the Abra River Movement (STARM). What is Happening to the Abra River? A Primer on the Effects of Corporate Mining on the Abra River System. September 2003. [12] STARM [13] STARM [14] CA and PIPLinks [15] Jacqueline K. Carino. A case Study of the Ibaloy People and the Agno River Basin, Province of Benguet, Philippines. Presented during the Consultation on Dams, Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities. Geneva, Switzerland. August 1999) [16] Croft 17] APIT TAKO. [18] STARM [19] CA and PIPILinks [20] STARM [21] STARM [22] Jill K. Carino and Cornelia Ag-agwa. The Situation of Mining in the Cordillera Region, Philippines and its Impact on Land Rights and Indigenous Women. Paper presented during the Second International Conference on Women and Mining. Bolivia. 2000 [23] STARM. [24] Hapit, The Official Publicatio n of the Cordillera Peoples Alliance. 3rd Quarter 2005. A basic Service to the People: The Chapyusen Micro-Hydro Project ———————– [pic]